A Brighter People, or a More Heavily Certificated Society?

People in Jersey are getting 'brighter', according to the findings of the 2010 Social Survey. The survey's results show that more people are going on to further education, but, the island still lags behind the UK. More than a quarter of islanders of working age have 'higher level qualifications' - mostly degrees and that a further 50 percent have 'secondary qualifications' - that's GCSEs, GNVQs, A-levels, or O-Levels. Only a fifth have no formal academic qualifications, now that's mainly older islander who fall into this group, but the statistics do reflect better access to further education. Back in 2001 a mere 12 % of islanders had a higher level qualification, that's now more than doubled to 29 percent. Nine years ago, 34 percent had no qualification, that's now dropped to 14. That downward trend clearly reflecting a better educated population, one that's likely to continue. (1)

But is it "brighter", or a more heavily certificated world? I am reminded of the Isaac Asimov story "Profession" (2), in which there are "Education tapes" which put knowledge into people's heads:

"The turning point came when the mechanics of the storage of knowledge within the brain was worked out. Once that had been done, it became possible to devise Educational tapes that would modify the mechanics in such a way as to place within the mind a body of knowledge ready-made so to speak. But you know about that. Once that was done, trained men could be turned out by the thousands and millions, and we could begin what someone has since called the 'Filling of the Universe.' There are now fifteen hundred inhabited planets in the Galaxy and there is no end in sight."

In Asimov's vision, of course, the tape process is relatively painless and quick, and it leads to a society where profession is flaunted by certification. George Platten, the protagonist of the story, has parents with registered professions, as do most of the population.

"Let's see, George. It says here on your card that your father is named Peter and that he's a Registered Pipe Fitter and your mother is named Amy and is a Registered Home Technician. Is that right?"

But it still leads to problems of supply and demand. I have seen this most clearly with nursery schools training in the late 1990s, when Highlands College was busy providing NVCQs in Early Leaning and Childhood, but not matching this to the demand. As a result, over a relatively few years, the qualification required rose from NVCQ grade 2 to grade 3, to whittle down the numbers required. An increasingly certificate driven society will do this, however good the certificates, because the number of certificates does not directly match the employment prospects. An education course is useful for someone retraining, trying to change direction to improve employment prospects, but on its own, it can lead to crowding out of the marketplace:

George had argued with Stubby Trevelyan about that constantly. As best friends, their arguments had to be constant and vitriolic and, of course, neither ever persuaded or was persuaded. But then Trevelyan had had a father who was a Registered Metallurgist and had actually served on one of the Outworlds, and a grandfather who had also been a Registered Metallurgist. He himself was intent on becoming a Registered Metallurgist almost as a matter of family right and was firmly convinced that any other profession was a shade less than respectable. "There'll always be metal, he said, "and there's an accomplishment in molding alloys to specification and watching structures grow. Now what's a Programmer going to be doing? Sitting at a coder all day long, feeding some fool mile-long machine."

Even at sixteen, George had learned to be practical. He said simply, "There'll be a million Metallurgists put out along with you."
"Because it's good. A good profession. The best."
"But you get crowded out, Stubby. You can be way back in line. Any world can tape out its own Metallurgists, and the market for advanced Earth models isn't so big. And it's mostly the small worlds that want them. You know what per cent of the turn-out of Registered Metallurgists get tabbed for worlds with a Grade A rating. I looked it up. It's just 13.3 per cent. That means you'll have seven chances in eight of being stuck in some world that just about has running water. You may even be stuck on Earth; 2.3 per cent are."

On education day, George goes with his classmates to receive the education tapes, and discovers to his horror that he can't be taped. He is an outcast in a society where everyone is registered:

He was led by a red-uniformed guide along the busy corridors lined with separate rooms each containing its groups, here two, there five: the Motor Mechanics, the Construction Engineers, the Agronomists - There were hundreds of specialized Professions and most of them would be represented in this small town by one or two anyway. He hated them all just then: the Statisticians, the Accountants, the lesser breeds and the higher. He hated them because they owned their smug knowledge now, knew their fate, while he himself empty still' had to face some kind of further red tape.

He is told the shocking truth:

The man said, "Good evening, George. Our own sector has only one of you this time, I see."
"Only one?" said George blankly.
"Thousands over the Earth, of course. Thousands. You're not alone."
George felt exasperated. He said, "I don't understand, sir. What's my classification? What's happening?"
"Easy, son. You're all right. It could happen to anyone. He held out his hand and George took it mechanically. It was warm and it pressed George's hand firmly. "Sit down, son. I'm Sam Ellenford."
George nodded impatiently. "I want to know what's going on, sir."
"Of course. To begin with, you can't be a Computer Programmer, George. You've guessed that I think."
"Yes, I have,' said George bitterly. "What will I be, then?"
"That's the hard part to explain, George." He paused, then said with careful distinctness, "Nothing."
"What!"
"Nothing!"
"But what does that mean? Why can't you assign me a profession?"
"We have no choice in the matter, George. It's the structure of your mind that decides that."
George went a sallow yellow. His eyes bulged. "There's something wrong with my mind?"
"There's something about it. As far as professional classification is concerned, I suppose you can call it wrong."
"But why?"
Ellenford shrugged. "I'm sure you know how Earth runs its Educational program, George. Practically any human being can absorb practically any body of knowledge, but each individual brain pattern is better suited to receiving some types of knowledge than others. We try to match mind to knowledge as well as we can within the limits of the quota requirements for each profession."
George nodded. "Yes, I know."
"Every once in a while, George, we come up against a young man whose mind is not suited to receiving a superimposed knowledge of any sort."
"You mean I can't be Educated?"
"That is what I mean."
"But that's crazy. I'm intelligent. I can understand - " He looked helplessly about as though trying to find some way of proving that he had a functioning brain.
"Don't misunderstand me, please," said Ellenford gravely. " You're intelligent. There's no question about that. You're even above average in intelligence. Unfortunately that has nothing to do with whether the mind ought to be allowed to accept superimposed knowledge or not. In fact, it is almost always the intelligent person who comes here."

George becomes a "ward of the planet" and is sent to a "house of the feeble minded" where he can learn from books if he so chooses, but there is no certification process. He decides to leave and attend the "Olympics" a competition not of physical sport, but where different professions can compete in a series of tests for the marketplace; those succeeding well being snapped up by the rich and prosperous outer worlds:

He had expected to be stopped before leaving the grounds. He wasn't. He had stopped at an all-night diner to ask directions to an air terminal and expected the proprietor to call the police. That didn't happen. He summoned a skimmer to take him to the airport and the driver asked no questions. Yet he felt no lift at that. He arrived at the airport sick at heart. He had not realized how the outer world would be. He was surrounded by professionals. The diner's proprietor had had his name inscribed on the plastic shell over the cash register. So and so, Registered Cook. The man in the skimmer had his license up, Registered Chauffeur. George felt the bareness of his name and experienced a kind of nakedness because of it worse, he felt skinned. But no one challenged him. No one studied him suspiciously and demanded proof of professional rating. George thought bitterly: Who would imagine any human being without one?

At the Olympics, he sees his old friend Trevelyan who takes part, but fails, in part because he has used older tapes, and there are better, more advanced educational tapes.

"Didn't do so well did I?" Stubby dropped his cigarette and stepped on it, staring off to the street, where the emerging crowd was slowly eddying and finding its way into skimmers, while new lines were forming for the next scheduled Olympics. Trevelyan said heavily, "So what? It's only the second time I missed. Novia can go shove after the deal I got today. There are planets that would jump at me fast enough - But, listen, I haven't seen you since Education Day. Where did you go? Your folks said you were on special assignment but gave no details and you never wrote. You might have written."
"I should have," said George uneasily. "Anyway, I came to say I was sorry the way things went just now."
"Don't be," said Trevelyan. "I told you. Novia can go shove - At that I should have known. They've been saying for weeks that the Beeman machine would be used. All the wise money was on Beeman machines. The damned Education tapes they ran through me were for Henslers and who uses Henslers? The worlds in the Goman Cluster if you want to call them worlds. Wasn't that a nice deal they gave me?"

Trevelyan is wedded to the idea of a society in which knowledge is designated by certification status. He cannot think outside that box. Because his education has only taken him so far, he is unable to come out with any original thought beyond his training, and this is the reason why he has failed:

"Sure, but I lost time wondering if I could be right in my diagnosis when I noticed there wasn't any clamp depressor in the parts they had supplied. They don't deduct for that. If it had been a Hensler, I would have known I was right. How could I match up then? The top winner was a San Franciscan. So were three of the next four. And the fifth guy was from Los Angeles. They get big-city Educational tapes. The best available. Beeman spectrographs and all. How do I compete with them? I came all the way out here just to get a chance at a Novian-sponsored Olympics in my classification and I might just as well have stayed home. I knew it, I tell you, and that settles it. Of all the damned -"

I'm not going to reveal the twist which comes later in the story, but it makes some clear points during its course.

1) A certificate based society, in which everyone has qualifications, becomes overcrowded, and the qualifications lose their value. This was well known when Parkinson wrote his books. By all means, improve employment prospects with courses, but those of skilled professions must be matched to the demands of society.

2) A society which only understands knowledge in terms of certified qualifications is a society which is only half a society; it is a society that will stagnate because in the pursuit of certain knowledge, it has turned away from the kind of open ended problems that occur in the real world, which cannot all be enumerated, and require problem solving thinking, which is a quite different kind of skill. The benefits of time spent not gaining qualifications, but gaining real workplace experience are being downgraded as a result.

This also brings us back to the idea of "brighter". Under the baneful influence of the IQ test, many people have come to believe that intelligence can be measured by means of a closed, fixed option, series of puzzles, which as far as testing knowledge is concerned, are little more than a sterile backwater.(3)

So is Jersey "getting brighter"? I would say not.

Postscript:

Here is an interesting puzzle which requires thought for its solution. It is not a multiple choice test, but it could be seen as a "theory of mind" test.

A striking feature of many of El Greco's pictures is the way figures and faces often appear to be excessively elongated . In trying to account for this idiosyncratic style, an ophthalmologist proposed in 1913 that El Greco may have had a form of astigmatism, which distorted his vision and led to elongated images forming on his retina (Trevor-Roper, 1970). Although such an explanation may initially seem reasonable, it does not stand up to logical scrutiny. Why?

Links
(1) http://www.channelonline.tv/channelonline_jerseynews/DisplayArticle.asp?ID=492343
(2) http://www.abelard.org/asimov.php
(3) http://www.mathmojo.com/chronicles/2009/02/08/iq-test-answer/

Annie on Maslow

By way of contrast, as these musings tend to be, some psychotherapy. This time, a few notes, with some autobiographical comments, from my late partner, Annie Parmeter. She discussed Maslow in her class, and also with me.

The idea that the evolution of life was counter to entropy, which she begins with, was partly due to her reading of M. Scott Peck's "The Road Less Travelled", when he came out with very much that idea. It was one of the few areas that we disagreed, because while the emergence of life, and the increasing complexity of life on earth seems to run counter to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, it only does so if one assumes the earth is a closed system. But it isn't, of course, getting energy into the biosphere from the sun, all the time, and it is the sun's energy which is the engine supplying energy for life on earth - and the sun is running down gradually, so that the whole system is increasing in entropy, regardless of localised areas where it appears to be reversed.

She was very good (and where I did agree with her) in seeing, as she explains here, how part of the apparently value-free "self-actualisation" of Maslow actually embodies cultural values from 20th century America, and it must be reinterpreted or adapted to other cultures.

I'd come across a similar problem arising in conjunction with even the seemingly "objective" IQ testing - it is clear that they often involved not just logic, as their proponents suggest, but also significant cultural biases. Even items such as "Fill an empty field on the left side with the correct picture from the right side" make assumptions about symmetries and regularities which are implicit. The test assumes that the result must come from symmetries in Euclidean geometry, and this has has some absolute Platonic "correctness" in the real world, which of course, it does not. Other considerations may enter into notions of "correctness", for example - in Turkey, prayer rugs, identifiable by a deliberate lack of symmetry (the "arrow" will always be lain in the direction of Mecca), continue to be one of the more beautiful categories of traditional Turkish rugs. The same occurs in Jewish culture, where one of the stylistic traits of Ancient Jewish art is an imperfect symmetry of design where in other cultural contexts a symmetrical pattern would be expected. A "correct" picture might be very unexpected after all!

Anyhow, here is Annie's interesting take on Maslow, and some reflective comments on life:

---

Refelections on Maslow by Annie Parmeter

This evening in class we revisited the work of Maslow and his idea of a hierarchy of needs, the idea of self-actualisation reflecting the popular needs and beliefs of the West coast of America in the 1950s and 60s, some focusing on the human potential of the idea, others applying the principle of self-actualisation to all life as countermanding the natural law of entropy.

The progressive system of needs outlined in Maslow's pyramid can be applied on many levels, right from an individual's addressing the fulfilment of these needs in the decision making process relating to a particular circumstance through consideration of personal development to a chronological 'lifecycle' interpretation of:

· Physiological needs being the primary concern of babies, the elderly, the sick and persons in crisis.
· Safety needs as pertaining to young children.
· Belonging needs applying to all but particularly teenagers seeking peer acceptance and finding their own social niche.
· Recognition needs relating to young adults.
· Self-actualisation needs being part of the human drive to 'create' and 'become'.

Some classmates perceived these needs as being the domain of the privileged few. I think that we all have these needs and the intelligence to find ways of fulfilling them in our daily lives, but the opportunity to address and implement them in particular ways may be the domain of the privileged few.

There are also cultural determinants involved for example our own 'western' value system may encourage a highly individualistic approach but other cultures may see that self-actualisation comes through contribution to the fulfilment of a family, tribal or other larger group need.

Personally I am in a very privileged position with regards being able to concentrate on what is important to me as I have no dependants or work commitments, the only thing that comes between me and my drive to self-actualise is chronic illness which can be an extremely demanding and unpredictable companion.

I see part of the purpose of my existence as being 'to seek out new life and new civilisations, to boldly go where no one has gone before'. I see no purpose in resistance to the inevitability of change; I welcome the opportunities and possibilities that it brings.

From amongst quite a complex layering of different patterns of attachment I have emerged with a sense of confidence in myself and in addition and perhaps as a consequence I have so far lived a most unusual and interesting life. What I do fear is injustice and men with guns.

As an only child forced to fall back on my own mental and emotional resources from the age of twelve I soon developed the need to form my own judgements of situations, and very soon realised that the view of the world that my parents had portrayed to me no longer existed in real life and quite possibly never had done.

Neither my own view nor that of my parents seemed to tie in with those of the people around me whose ideas seemed to me to be the stuff of fairytales, so I managed the situation as best I could by steering a middle path, on the one hand sticking to my own evaluations gleaned from day to day experiences but on the other presenting a sort of self-preserving collaboration so as to blend in 'undetected'. This charade diminished over the years, until now cantankerous and forty-something I scarcely have the patience to bother with it at all even for the sake of 'social niceties'.

I have made a commitment to be honest with myself, there are still plenty of things I catch myself trying to sweep under the carpet but I'm giving it my best shot. Other people frequently seem to find my honesty fairly scary!

On the subject of presenting my own views.hmm tricky. The last few years have seen me become less and less willing to form any concrete opinions let alone present them to others. Opinions seem to be limiting and bare little relevance to the shifting nature of reality, my boyfriend, a robust critical thinker sees this as a decline into the worst and woolliest sort of relativism. So. damned if you have an opinion and damned if you don't! Am I bovvered?

Taking responsibility for one's life? Quite keen on that as I'm not sure who else is going to do it (so speaks the abandoned owning-class child). I am also interested in taking my share of responsibility for my illness, which I have discussed with my consultant. He is taking care of the medical treatment plan, jointly we are setting goals and I am doing lifestyle choices, research, emotional and mental health and the fun bit.exploration of existential dilemmas.

Idiot Quotient

http://www5.channelonline.tv/news/templates/businessnews2.aspx?articleid=16374&zoneid=1

People in Jersey will be able to find out their IQ score when Mensa head for the island next month. There are currently 23,500 members in The High IQ Society, the only requirement being that your IQ falls in the top two per cent of the population. The IQ tests will be held at the St Paul's Centre in St Helier on Saturday 11th October at 10.30am. It will be £15 to sit the test which takes two and a half hours in exam conditions. John Stevenage, Chief Executive at Mensa, told Channel Online: "Knowing your IQ is useful for university and job applications, it can make your application stand out."

I remember that back in the 1980s, Mensa testing was done locally by the Jersey chairman who would occasionally take time out to go off to Guernsey to give tests there, and at the same time - as was common knowledge - to visit his mistress there. Unfortunately high IQ does not indicate any superior morality, and cheating on your wife is just as common among the clever as the stupid, only the clever are probably too stupid to realise that everyone knows.

Together with my friend Ken Webb, the editor, I was assistant editor of the Channel Island Mensa Magazine "Thinks!" for several years from 1984 onwards. Ken developed the magazine from the photocopied and stapled pages he inherited into a neat little piece of journalism, with a glossy cover, bound and stapled into a small booklet, and produced monthly by means of a photocopier and an Amstrad PCW512 - remember them!

Because contributions were exceedingly thin on the ground from the membership, Ken wrote additional material under his own name and the pseudonym Charles Cabeldu, and I contributed extra essays and reviews under my own name and also the unlikely names of Matthew Shepard, Gideon Fell, Una Nancy Owen and Magnus Riddolf! Mensa people may be supposedly bright, but they were barely literate when it came to any contributions, if they managed to put pen to paper at all. They were best seen at the monthly Mensa dinners, because intelligence and the ability to pontificate correlate very highly.

Regarding intelligence testing, I could never see quite what the value was in something that was so clearly a nonsense - a statistical artifact of cultural prejudices and general knowledge. On the one occasion when I did look at an IQ test paper, I had great fun working alternative answers - and legitimate ones - to all the questions.

For the best historical book to treat the subject, see Stephen Jay Gould's "The Mismeasure of Man" (revised edition, 1996), in which he looks at "one particular form of quantified claim about the ranking of human groups: the argument that intelligence can be meaningfully abstracted as a single number capable of ranking all people on a linear scale of intrinsic and unalterable mental worth" ; it "is a critique of a specific theory of intelligence often supported by particular interpretation of a certain style of mental testing: the theory of unitary, genetically based, unchangeable intelligence". He also demonstrates the statistical basis for IQ (factor analysis) and why it is flawed in its application.

Examples of cultural bias are given in the paper "Cultural Bias in Standardized Intelligence Testing" by Nicolas Bommarito:

Bias in an item on intelligence tests can result from cultural familiarity with one of the objects or words that occur in the question. For example, one item that appears in a form with pictures and in another form with words, gives a set of four instruments, harp, drum, violin, and piano. The test taker is then asked to cross out the one that doesn't belong. (Eells 258). Over half of the lower status children picked the harp, rather than the correct answer of drum, probably because they were unfamiliar with the harp as an instrument from a lack of exposure to it. A similar bias occurred on the WWI alpha IQ test, which contained obviously biased terms requiring knowledge of brand names and baseball players, and also on the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), which calls for knowledge of English weights and measures, literature, and history. (Mensh 1991:50). Questions like these seem far from measuring any type of innate intelligence, instead it appears as if they measure, at least to some degree, knowledge acquired though experience and thus environment. The may seem to be of minor importance in the overall results, but since speed is a requirement this unfamiliarity can be a severe handicap. For example, the WISC picture-completion subset allows only fifteen seconds for picture identification, an amount of time that requires significant familiarity.

Looking at the one test available from the site:

http://www.mensa-test.com/

Intelligence Test, Part 1: You have to work out what the letters mean. See No 0 as an example. It doesn't matter if you write the answers in uppercase or lowercase, but the answers must be exactly as expected (no additional intervals or dashes and the spelling must be correct).

0 24 H in a D = 24 hours in a day
1 26 L of the A
2 7 D of the W
3 7 W of the W
4 12 S of the Z
5 66 B of the B

and it goes on, another page of endless and pretty appalling culturally conditioned testing - try translating it into French, or even transplanting it from America to Scotland. Another blogger notes of this kind of rubbish that their should be a disclaimer saying: "Test results are only accurate for Americans, between the age of 25 - 34, and who had never voted Republican, and have consumed more than 3 beers in the past hour [you must be relaxed]"

And here is another one:

Tennis is to racquet as golf is to:
a. club
b. strike
c. bat
d. swing

This question does not just measure mental skills like insight or creativity; instead, it measures a specific piece of cultural knowledge that must be learned. To the extent that a child's environment does not include such knowledge of tennis or gold, they will not be able to answer the question.

Mensa's own site (http://www.mensa.org.uk/iq-levels/) says that:

IQ or Intelligence Quotient is an attempt to measure intelligence. This means many things to many people but generally the attribute of intelligence refers to quickness of mental comprehension (or mental agility). Intelligence is often confused with knowledge, wisdom, memory, or other attributes and in general has a variety of meanings depending on the context in which it is used. The term IQ usually refers to the attempt to measure a person's mental agility.

This is an incredible idea - that the "mental agility" - whatever that is - can be somehow divorced as a discrete measurable item apart from knowledge, wisdom, memory or other attributes. In theory then, it should be simple to devise an single intelligence test for human beings, cats, ants or spiders. After all, if it does not require the other attributes - which can be screened out of the testing process - then why not? Of course, the ability to read may be helpful - I believe that is called knowledge - which will cause trouble to some spiders.

Language, is of course, encoded in a particular culture, and the choice of words - try toilet, loo, lavatory etc - is also often highly correlated with class. Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed demonstrates how choice of language reflects social and cultural bias. Even pictures can reflect bias, for example, those of Robert Yerke's IQ test for immigrants made assumptions about knowledge of American society.


For the pictorial tests, go to:
http://www.understandingrace.com/history/science/race_intel.html

Part Six of the beta IQ test (link above), developed by psychologist Robert M. Yerkes, was given to Army recruits to determine their innate intelligence. Yerkes intelligence exams (alpha, beta and individual) were culturally biased, taken under markedly different conditions and tended to reflect years in the U.S. and familiarity with dominant culture, rather than innate intelligence. Nevertheless, the early 20th century IQ exams have been the basis for standardized tests ever since.

There is a mathematical paper by the Princeton mathematician W. Smith, which looks in detail at the mathematics and logic behind both IQ and Artificial Intelligence. Regarding the founding work of Spearman in establishing IQ, he gives this verdict (which most mathematicians would agree with):

Spearman's 93-page 1904 paper (which Jensen calls "one of the 3 or 4 most important papers in the history of mental testing") in fact was quite shoddy both mathematically, statistically, and methodologically, and to add injury to insult, R.B.Fancher redid Spearman's calculations and found about 50 erroneous results apparently due to wrong arithmetic and with the signs of the errors showing an amazing fortunate tendency to "improve" the validity of his conclusions (Spearman's uncorrected numbers were then reprinted by Jensen [86] p.24). Specifically, Spearman seemed unaware of much of linear algebra, for example never mentioning eigenvalues and eigenvectors in his paper.

It is quite an amazing thing to me as a mathematician, but the psychologists and educationalists who devise IQ tests seem to care remarkably little about whether the "correct" answers on their tests actually are correct. For example, the criteria for the "right answer" to Raven's matrices are pseudo-logical or aesthetic, but there is never any proof any answer is right or wrong. So this test - despite the plentitude of praise heaped upon it by Jensen at every opportunity - is purely a "popularity test" or "conformity test" testing whether your aesthetic preferences (or preferences when employing pseudo-logical argumentation), happen to agree with more or less of society (specifically, the normalization subsample of society) or with the test-creator, and is not a test of how good you are at finding the "right answer."

He concludes that:

Since "intelligence"is about "the ability to solve problems," one might have proposed the naive idea for an IQ test that a problem-task be described (in some language) and then the testee tries to solve it. Bad idea: it is important to be able to solve problems that do not have (or do not have obvious) descriptions and definitions at all - in real life, often a large part of solving the problem first is to find a good problem statement. This whole paper is, in fact, an excellent example of that. In real life, one determines "what the problem is" oneself and then determines "how good the solution is" oneself also, usually with the aid of some disagreeable interaction with the external world.

The advantage of that is to locate "intelligence" within an evolutionary context as something which helps survival, by providing a kind of "mental agility" to solve hitherto unseen problems. This problem solving ability would very likely involve reasoning, but also the ability to deal with real world problems rather than total abstractions, and considerable knowledge may also help. That is why this is the approach being taken by different researchers in Artificial Intelligence. We can program a computer to do a set task, but how do we program it to learn intelligently and solve problems by itself. By divorcing IQ from the evolutionary context, and making it something like a Platonic ideal, as Mensa does, the end result is a set of exercises in trivia.

References:
The Mismeasure of Man, Stephen Jay Gould,
Betrayers of the Truth, William Broad, Nicholas Wade (good on the fraud perpetrated by Cyril Burt)

http://www.nicbommarito.com/writing/nonfiction/anthroiq.pdf
http://www.pineforge.com/newman4study/resources/iqtests.htm
http://www.pipeline.com/%7Erougeforum/freirecriticaledu.htm
http://www.autcom.org/articles%5CIQFallacy2.html
http://www.math.temple.edu/~wds/homepage/iq.pdf
http://www.personality-and-aptitude-career-tests.com/iq-test-scales.html
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/b4241c2.html
http://www.donkeytest.com/history.html
http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/2250_Living_with_our_Genes.html