Proofs and Refutations in Historical Jesus Research – Part 1

Proofs and Refutations in Historical Jesus Research – Part 1

In “Proofs and Refutations”, the philosopher Imre Lakatos (pictured above) demonstrates how mathematicians and scientists deal with counterexamples that threaten their core theories. Instead of abandoning the theory (as Popper said they should), they use brilliant rhetorical and structural manoeuvres to protect the status quo. As I was reading mathematics at Exeter University, I came across both Popper and Lakatos as part of my set books.

I find Lakatos more compelling than Popper, as his “Proofs and Refutations” is actually both an interpretation and commentary on actual developments in parts of mathematical history.

I shall be using the model given in “Proofs and Refutations” to examine some current trends in historical Jesus and New Testament origins research. But first, let us start with a basic explanation of how this all works.

 

In Lakatos’s dialogue, a mathematician proposes a "proof" (a global conjecture), someone else hurls a "refutation" (a counterexample) at it, and instead of throwing the proof away, the community stretches, refines, and redefines their terms to accommodate the new reality.

Here are the four basic, foundational Lakatosian strategies people use to defend the status quo:

Monster-Barring (Excluding the Data)

This is the most aggressive defence. When faced with a counterexample that breaks your theory, you simply declare that the counterexample is a "monster" (a freak anomaly or invalid data point) that doesn't belong in the discussion. You don't change your theory; you just shrink the definition of what counts as real data.

• The Mathematics Example: A student defines a polyhedron as a solid bounded by plane faces. Someone presents a "cylinder" as a counterexample. The student responds: "A cylinder is a freak monster, not a real polyhedron! Real polyhedra must have straight edges. Therefore, my theory is still safe."

• The Real-World Equivalent: High-level political ideologues use this constantly. When shown a historical collapse of their preferred economic system, they will say: "Well, that wasn't real capitalism/socialism."

Exception-Barring (Ghettoizing the Data)

In this strategy, you acknowledge that the counterexample is real and valid, but you argue it is a minor, bizarre exception that doesn't impact your macro-theory. You draw a neat little boundary fence around the troublesome data, label it a "special case," and pass a law forbidding it from modifying your main rule.

• The Mathematics Example: A student states a rule that works for all shapes, but someone points out it fails for a star-shaped polygon. The student says: "Fine, my rule works for all normal shapes, except star-shaped ones. We will just ignore star-shaped ones for now."

• The Real-World Equivalent: A medical researcher has a theory that a drug is 100% effective. When a patient gets sick anyway, the researcher says: "The theory holds true for everyone, except patients with this one specific, rare genetic marker."

Monster-Adjusting (Reinterpreting the Meaning)

This is a highly sophisticated, linguistic magic trick. You do not change the words of your theory, and you do not throw away the counterexample. Instead, you redefine the words inside your theory so that the troublesome counterexample is magically transformed into proof that you were right all along.

• The Mathematics Example: If your theory requires a shape to have "edges," and a counterexample has a curved line, you simply broaden the definition of an "edge" to include curved lines. The monster is "adjusted" until it fits.

• The Real-World Equivalent: An astrologer predicts a client will have a "massively successful financial day." The client actually loses £50. The astrologer deploys monster-adjusting: "Ah, but losing that money taught you a valuable spiritual lesson about greed. True 'wealth' is spiritual, so my prediction came true!"

Lemma-Incorporation (Fixing the Blueprint)

This is the most constructive Lakatosian strategy and the one that actually drives human progress. Instead of flatly denying the counterexample, you use the counterexample to find a hidden, unstated assumption (a lemma) in your original proof. You then carefully modify your theory to absorb the shock of the counterexample, making the overall theory much more complex, nuanced, and resilient.

• The Mathematics Example: A student realizes their rule failed because they forgot to specify that the shape must be perfectly flat. They update the theory: "My rule works for all polyhedra, provided they are convex." The theory changes, but it grows stronger.

• The Real-World Equivalent: This is how actual scientific progress works. When Newton’s laws couldn't perfectly explain the weird orbit of Mercury, physicists didn't throw out Newtonian physics; they used Einsteinian relativity to incorporate the extreme exceptions of high-gravity environments into a larger, more robust blueprint of physics.

When we map Imre Lakatos’s four strategies onto the high-stakes battlefield of Gospel scholarship, we can see exactly why NT scholars and historical-Jesus researchers rarely change their minds.

Because the text of the Gospels is ancient, complex, and open to interpretation, it provides the perfect raw material for academics to build a "Protective Belt" around their core theories.

In my next posts, I will illustrate how biblical historians of the New Testament deploy the four basic Lakatosian strategies to defend their views against troublesome textual data.

Religion, History and G. R Balleine – Part 3

Religion, History and G. R Balleine – Part 3
(The Reformation in Jersey)
By Jason St John Nicolle
From "The Pilot", 1991

Part III Discontented Catholics?

AND SO, after an adjournment of a month, the court of Jersey history reconvenes; the issue to be decided, the cause and nature of the religious revolution of the sixteenth century, better known as the Reformation. The jury are ushered to their seats. The black-suited, white-stocked lawyers stop whispering to each other; they turn once again to the files and authorities which lie opened in front of them, and a self-conscious, expectant silence fills the air.

The prosecution, led by the familiar and respected figure of George Reginald Balleine, has already stated its case. It has argued that the Protestant faith was established rapidly on Jersey, and with widespread popular support: "The victory of Protestantism was complete" by 1553 — the year which saw the death of Edward VI, and the accession of his sister Mary. It was yet another example of the inevitable triumph of the Evangelical faith.

But that was at last month's hearing; the jury has now to hear the arguments of the other side. Will Advocate Balleine's version of events be challenged? Whose version will the jury find the more convincing? All eyes are now on the defence, as their counsel rises to address the court.

“ Members of the jury, Advocate Balleine has argued that the Reformation on Jersey was imposed rapidly and with widespread popular support — he would like us to believe that this was a revolution 'from below.' The defence will argue that this is a view which has no foundation in historical fact. It will seek to establish that the faith of the Reformers took some fifty years to seize the hearts and minds of Islanders. Its eventual triumph owed nothing to the alleged superiority of its Evangelical doctrine, and everything to the capricious realities of power politics. This was no Reformation 'from below'; it was a Reformation 'from above.”

"The prosecution's case consists of several arguments; but a single assumption has provided the foundation for the whole edifice, and I shall deal with this assumption first. The assumption is simply this: we can take it for granted that there was widespread dissatisfaction with the beliefs and practices of Catholicism in the 1520's, 30's and 40's. Having started with this assumption, it is natural for the prosecution to picture discontented Catholics embracing the new Protestant faith at the earliest opportunity; it has to have been a Reformation 'from below.' But if we remove the necessity for supposing widespread discontent, we also remove the necessity for supposing that Protestantism was widely welcomed.”

"Unfortunately, we will never know for sure what most Islanders really thought of the Catholic Church on the eve of the Reformation; the surviving evidence is simply too limited. But one thing is certain: we cannot assume that Islanders were necessarily dissatisfied with the faith of their forefathers.”

"Take, for instance, the case of Brelade Alexandre, Constable of St Brelade. When he was on his deathbed in 1537, he made a will; and among his bequests was one wheat rente to endow an annual mass, to be said on the anniversary of the day of his burial, for the health of his own soul and the souls of his ancestors. There would have been no point making the bequest if Alexandre had not genuinely believed in the spiritual efficacy of the Catholic Mass.”

"We can be fairly certain that a good number of Alexandre's fellow Jerseymen would have shared the Constable's belief in the sacramental framework of late mediaeval catholicism. Several would have belonged to religious clubs, known as Confraternities, which organised annual anniversary masses to mark the death of benefactors. There seem to have been about two dozen separate confraternities on Jersey during the 1530's and 1540's; two-thirds of them survived until 1550, when they were wound-up by a Royal Commission. It is impossible to say how many members belonged to each club, and their functions were not solely religious; but their very existence presupposes widespread confidence in the Sacrifice of the Mass.

"We know that ensuring the provision of a mass could be a matter of the utmost seriousness. In 1529, the parishioners of St Martin complained about a wheat rente which had not been paid for twenty years. They were annoyed because it has formed the endowment for a weekly mass; they had been denied the spiritual benefit of 1,040 masses, 'to the prejudice both of the living and the dead.' The precision of their calculation reveals the depth of their concern.

"We will never know whether these examples give a representative picture of attitudes towards Catholicism on the eve of the Reformation; but they are sufficient to show that it would be wrong to assume that Jerseymen of the 1530's and 40's were necessarily discontented with the faith of their forefathers. This was the assumption on which the prosecution's case was based; and it has been shown to be untenable. It is now time to consider the prosecution's second proposition: that Jerseymen and women were quickly won over to the new faith. The arguments ... 

But the counsel for the defence is not allowed to finish his sentence: the Judge has granted another adjournment.

Elegy for Autumn

I wanted a sonnet as a "mood poem" to capture autumnal mood with strong natural imagery.

Elegy for Autumn

Brown leaves fall softly to the ground
And berries adorn the trees with red
Crows portend with autumn’s sound
The coming of the storms with dread

Dogs are frisky running on the sand
And sandcastles washed away by sea
North wind stretches out her hand
Before storms that ships must flee

Owls swoop to catch prey by night
Clouds brush across a harvest moon
Caressing the earth, a tender light
Before storm clouds gather soon

An Indian summer, enjoy a final day,
Before colder winds come this way

1986 - 40 years ago - October Part 1

1986 - 40 years ago - October Part 1

October 6-12

THE dispute over Sealink's closure of Channel Island ferry routes and the redundancies caused by the move finally hits roll-on roll-off freight when union action stops lorries boarding British Channel Island Ferries' vessel, Corbière. National Union of Seamen pickets block the ferry ramp in St Helier Harbour to protest against the loss of 492 jobs.

Judgment is reserved in the action brought by suspended St Helier Centenier Peter Pearce. Centenier Pearce says that he was unlawfully suspended and the Royal Court hears that no grounds have been found to press charges against him concerning his conduct during a Police Court case. It is revealed, however, that he breached Court procedure and misled the Magistrate.

The foul smell of sewerage around Bellozanne has returned, much to the annoyance of residents of the area. The problem is said to be worse late at night and early in the morning.

 

Jambo, the gorilla who stood guard after five-year-old Levan Merritt fell into the Zoo's gorilla enclosure, is named "Individual Animal of the Year" by BBC's Wildlife magazine.

The Jersey Football Association promises to "fight to the bitter end" to save Springfield as the base of Jersey football. The Island Development Committee are currently negotiating with the Royal Jersey Agricultural and Horticultural Society to purchase the site for housing.

The Bishop of Winchester, the Rt. Rev. Colin James, pays a brief visit to the Island and "drops in" on an assembly at St Michael's School,

October 13-19

A ROYAL Court murder trial is postponed because it is not possible to find the required 24 jurors to hear evidence against 20-year-old Jose Nelio Izilio de Azevedo, the Portuguese waiter accused of killing his countryman and colleague, Mr Joao Sapeta.

 

La Folie Inn, one of Jersey's few remaining independent pubs, could be taken over by one of the big three local brewery groups. The tenancy of the pub is up for renewal, but if it goes to Ann Street Brewery, Randalls Vautier or Bass Charrington it is likely that the matter will be taken up in the States.

A report into the future of Methodism in Jersey says that at least five churches should close. The report, which is expected to upset some local Methodists, is described as a discussion document and its authors say that they are not trying to force closures.

Jersey's former Army Careers Officer, Mr Vic Bourgoise, succeeds Mr Keith Hutton as chief traffic warden. Mr Hutton becomes the Island's car parks manager.

There is still uncertainty about the future of ferry services to the mainland. As the Sealink dispute continues, there is no indication when the full service proposed by British Channel Island Ferries will restore shipping links with the UK.

Hundreds of people — including the Bailiff, Mr Peter Crill, the Lieut.-Governor, Admiral Sir William Pillar, and the Dean, the Very Rev. Basil O'Ferrall, attend a peace service in the Royal Square.

Guernsey in 1974 – Part 2

Guernsey in 1974 – Part 2

This is an extract from Peter Haining’s guide book of 1974, which is as much interest today for the historian as to the tourist, as many of the places and industries described in his book have long vanished. Please do not take it as a current guide. I have added changes in italics.

More of the Introduction

The island is a bustling place most of the time—Sunday being the exception as has been mentioned earlier—but it is still possible to “get away from it all’”’ walking through the pleasant valleys in the interior or on the more exposed (though definitely more bracing) northern commons. Trying to suggest routes for walks is an almost impossible task for Guernsey. The only answer is to go where you please—and because of the size of the island you will never be far from a bus stop (the island’s bus service is certainly one of the most regular, efficient and well organised in the British Isles) and in any case it is never very difficult to find the coast.

There are more activities being provided for the younger visitors to Guernsey—though the authorities are still very wary about allowing any entertainment that might attract “hippies and layabouts”’, to quote one State official. The gradual change of attitude may have come about because of a visit by The Beatles in 1964. The four Liverpool lads were impressed with the island but said not enough was being done for teenagers. Obviously any attempts to over-commercialise the island will be resisted, but the climate of change is growing. This is particularly noticeable through the number of folk and beat clubs springing up, plus the “‘pop” music boat trips and increased facilities for water ski-ing, surfing, underwater swimming and sports of all kinds.

 Incorrect Year. The Beatles actually played their historic Guernsey concerts on 8 August 1963. They performed two shows in a single night at the Candie Gardens Pavilion in St. Peter Port before returning to Jersey. They never returned to perform in 1964. However, the quote about their impression is highly consistent with 1960s British youth culture commentary.

 In the early 1970s, Guernsey's conservative government (the States of Guernsey) was deeply protective of its image as a respectable, family-friendly, upper-middle-class holiday resort. The influx of long-haired youth, "beatniks," and hitchhikers across Europe terrified local hoteliers and officials, who actively used local vagrancy and housing laws to discourage bohemian "layabouts" from loitering around St. Peter Port.

The late 1960s and 1970s saw a massive boom in Guernsey's youth-centric nightlife. Venues like The Savoy Hotel (hosting rock gigs) and the Fermain Tavern became legendary local hubs. This era also birthed Guernsey's modern surfing and scuba diving scenes along the west coast.

Today, rather than banning youth entertainment, Guernsey hosts major annual events like the Vale Earth Fair (the longest-running music festival in the Channel Islands) and SarkFest on the neighboring island, specifically designed to draw alternative crowds, artists, and live music fans.

Shopping facilities always play an important part on any female visitor’s agenda and Guernsey (St. Peter Port in particular) can boast some extremely good shops, stocking goods from the United Kingdom (most of them cheaper) and from the Continent (many of them unobtainable in Britain). Half day closing on the island is Thursday, by the way.

In 1974, Guernsey legally enforced "half-day closing" on Thursdays, shutting down St. Peter Port to give shop workers time off. Today, this practice is a thing of the past. High street retailers, local boutiques, and major supermarkets keep regular hours all week long, with many offering late-night shopping on Thursdays or opening on Sundays.

As far as traditional foods are concerned the only surviving morsel on Guernsey is the ‘‘Gache’’, a fruit cake which is still sold in certain small tea shops.

Guernsey Gâche (a rich fruit bread baked with raisins, sultanas, and mixed peel) was never limited to a few tea shops. Today, it is widely mass-produced, sold in every local supermarket, and heavily exported to tourists.

The island waters also produce a particularly large breed of crab which are served at many restaurants with local lobsters, crawfish and prawns as an alternative. Fish of all kinds are common, and even tropical species like the torpedo ray and sun fish find their way into the Channel Islands area. Small octopi are not unknown, either, and local fishermen can frequently be seen hunting for them in the rock pools at low tide. They may not be to everybody’s taste, but some Guernsey men and women consider them the finest of all sea foods!

Recently local commercial fishing fleets reported an unprecedented "octopus bloom". Warming sea temperatures caused a massive explosion of common octopuses in local waters.The Culinary War: Far from being a niche taste like in 1974, local chefs at Le Nautique and other island restaurants adapted their menus to showcase local octopus. This boom is actually a double-edged sword: the booming octopus population is so hungry that they are raiding local pots and eating the island's famous crabs and lobsters before fishermen can harvest them!

Finally, a word about going to live on Guernsey. Because of the demand for land and houses, the States of Guernsey have put into operation a system which safeguards a reasonable amount of priority for islanders. The Cadastre Office of the States judge the amenities of every house and then put a rateable value on it from £1 to £100. All properties with a figure of under £80 are then declared “‘for islanders only”. Anyone seeking a house, however, will find that Guernsey estate agents invariably advertise houses for sale whether or not they are open to mainland buyers. The average price of a house open to outsiders is around £20,000. If this sounds particularly high it should be measured against the amenities of the island which have already been mentioned. Further information about settling on the island can be obtained from the Tourist Office,

Guernsey's two-tier housing market, originally established by the 1974 Housing Control Law to prioritize islanders through rateable value thresholds, remains strictly enforced today. While a 1974 guidebook estimated open-market property prices at £20,000, modern valuations have surged significantly alongside updated population management and tax frameworks. 

The Apple Crusher Relocation: Hidden in Plain Site in Plans

A parish constable is asking the public to share their thoughts on the relocation of a "much loved" St Helier landmark. The granite apple crusher on King Street is due to be moved to Howard Davis Park as part of a £2.5m Infrastructure Department project to revamp the area including resurfacing work.

Minister for Infrastructure, Deputy Jonathan Renouf said there was a consultation on it but admitted he was "open to ideas on keeping it". He said the proposals showing its removal were publicly available throughout the development of the scheme, and were displayed and discussed at a public exhibition over a year ago, and the plans published online have consistently shown the apple crusher removed.

The Deputy has since abandoned the plans! 

But with a statement which suggests the pushback is bad! Not with an admission that the plans were bad! Heaven forbid!

The Minister said: "The original design would have delivered important improvements to the public realm, including strengthening the link between King Street and Broad Street, creating additional opportunities for outdoor seating, and allowing for further tree planting. However, it is clear that a significant body of public opinion wishes to see the Apple Crusher remain in its current location. Having listened to those views and to the Connétable of St.Helier, I have instructed officers to redesign the scheme so that the Apple Crusher is retained."

This statement frames the situation as if retaining the Apple Crusher is a compromise that forces them to sacrifice trees, seating, and connectivity. In reality, modern urban design frequently proves the exact opposite: retaining authentic historical anchors actually maximizes the value of a public realm!

Trees, standard paving, and outdoor seating can be added to any high street in the world. They are generic improvements. A 200-year-old granite apple crusher is unique to Jersey's specific heritage and has been there for around 50 years. The apple crusher was installed in 1978 to commemorate Jersey's historic cider-making heritage. 

The argument that they needed to move it to strengthen the link between King Street and Broad Street sets up a false choice. Excellent urban design adapts to heritage rather than demanding a blank canvas.

So let's look at the evidence:

https://publicrealm.gov.je/our-projects/broad-street/

The documents I have looked at contain no mention of the word "apple crusher."

The diagram above is a high-level master schedule that focuses strictly on the overall project Phasing and street names, which is exactly why the specific location of the apple crusher is so difficult to find from the map alone

.

To clarify exactly where it sits based on this map's labels:

• The map shows King Street running horizontally across the top left.

• The "New Cut" (the vertical orange zone) is the specific walkway that connects King Street down to Broad Street.

• The apple crusher is located on King Street, positioned right at that specific junction where the orange "New Cut" pathway meets the main shopping street.

The physical landmark itself was completely omitted from this visual key, which is why there was such an intense public outcry—many parishioners felt the government was hiding the removal within the broader "New Cut" work phases

https://publicrealm.gov.je/media/yull0sxs/improvements-design-and-map-of-broad-street-phase-1.pdf

All technical parameters, street furniture standards, and pedestrian path rules for Phase 3 are bundled directly inside the main Broad Street Public Realm Improvement Scheme Guide rather than an isolated document.

https://publicrealm.gov.je/media/yull0sxs/improvements-design-and-map-of-broad-street-phase-1.pdf

This contains no mention of the relocation of the apple crusher.

https://publicrealm.gov.je/our-projects/new-street-and-new-cut/

This contains no mention of the relocation of the apple crusher.

https://publicrealm.gov.je/media/0uxkc455/61502_gra_broadstreetph3web_p3_fi.pdf

This master design blueprint explicitly shows the area after the apple crusher has been removed.

The text makes NO mention of it.

Where it should be vs. What is shown

• The Location: Look at the middle section of King Street where the paved "New Cut" pathway forms a wide, curved peach-colored pedestrian plaza.

• The Substitution: The apple crusher planter originally sits right in that King Street clearance outside Marks & Spencer. On this specific plan, that space has been completely flattened into open paving, and a new green tree symbol has been placed nearby to replace it.

• The Omission: Because the original government proposal assumed the landmark would be extracted and relocated to Howard Davis Park, they completely wiped it from the architectural graphics.

Concluding remarks

There are no official planning maps or architectural blueprints that I can easily find which textually label the words "Apple Crusher."

• Omission on Master Maps: On every master engineering visual (like the ones you uploaded), the landmark was simply scrubbed out and replaced with an unnamed circle representing a tree or flat paving.

• Hidden in the Text: When the project was filed inside the broader town planning frameworks, the feature was only genericized under technical design terms. The department labelled it an "obstruction," a "planter," or "clutter" to be cleared to expand pedestrian capacities in the "New Cut" sector.

And finally...

The removal was not very prominently shown, buried in lengthy plans that hardly anyone bothers to read as the government at the time was brooking no push back on their plans. Metaphorically this reminds me of Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy here:

Mr. Prosser: "But the plans were on display…"
Arthur Dent: "On display? I eventually had to go down to the cellar to find them."
Mr. Prosser: "That's the display department."
Arthur Dent: "With a torch."
Mr. Prosser: "The lights had probably gone out."
Arthur Dent: "So had the stairs."
Mr. Prosser: "But look, you found the notice, didn't you?"
Arthur Dent: "Yes, yes I did. It was on display at the bottom of a locked filing cabinet stuck in a disused lavatory with a sign on the door saying Beware of the Leopard."

Religion, History and G. R Balleine – Part 2

Religion, History and G. R Balleine – Part 2

(The Reformation in Jersey)
By Jason St John Nicolle
From "The Pilot", 1991

IF SOMEONE mentions the word "Revolution”, certain images tend to project themselves onto the screens of our minds. We might see heavily-laden carts creaking through the streets of Paris. Perhaps we see bearded intellectuals, meeting in secret behind closed doors, arguing passionately for a sub-committee on the Dictatorship of the Proletariat. Or we might think of furnaces and factories in smoke-filled towns, of coal mines and cotton mills. These are the sort of images which come most readily to mind when we think of Revolution. Few, if any, would picture a 34-year-old lecturer, hammering a discussion on a church door in the university town of Wittenberg. Even fewer would think of earnest, black-gowned clergymen, journeying to Geneva to hear an exiled French lawyer preach on the unrelenting justice of the God of Love.

By using the term "Reformation" rather than "Revolution" we have forgotten that the movements precipitated and led by Luther and Calvin in the middle years of the sixteenth century generated one of the most Iwo engravings which appeared in "The Reformation and the Deformation," published by Mr Mowbray of Oxford in 1868. The inscription above (which may be indistinct) shows that private subscription was a welcome source of funding. It reads: "This church was beautified and this singing loft erected at the sole expense of Dame Margery Deanwell of this parish." Peter Porty was the Rector, assisted by David-Drawl, Curate. The whole is balanced by the names of the Churchwardens: Sam Sawyer and David Daut.

The Reformation was one of the most dramatic and significant periods of change which Europe has ever known. And these changes affected Jersey as much as they affected England, France or Germany.

Historians have been arguing over the interpretation of the Reformation for well over four hundred years —and there is every sign that the debate will continue for many years to come. They have tended to pitch their tents in one of two camps. 

There are those, usually from a Protestant background, who see the new doctrines spreading quickly and widely among congregations distressed at the low state of contemporary Catholicism; they see the Reformation as a popular revolution, imposed "from below." 

But there are others who talk of a revolution imposed "from above." They argue that there was no widespread discontent amongst Catholics on the eve of the Reformation; the Protestant faith was imposed by the authorities, and it took several decades before it was widely accepted. The arguments have been over which of these two views is the more accurate: a Reformation "from below," or "from above"?

The answer is neither. As generalisations, both are equally false; as terms to describe particular situations, both can equally be true. There was never a single Reformation. The course and extent of religious change varied from city to city, and from region to region. There were cities such as London where the new doctrines had received widespread support by the early 1540's, well before the government began to impose Protestantism on its subjects, which started with the accession of Edward VI in 1547. But there were more isolated areas of the country, such as Lancashire, where Catholicism remained popular into the seventeenth century. If we examine the growth and establishment of Protestantism in sixteenth century London, we find that this was very much a reformation from below; but if we travel through the Midlands into the fells and forests of Lancashire, the picture becomes completely different.

But what if, instead of heading north along Watling Street, we were to travel south through Surrey and Hampshire, and take a boat from Southampton to Jersey? Would we find that early and vigorous commitment to the new faith which characterised and citizens of London? Or were the Jerseymen of the middle years of the sixteenth century too attached to the faith of their fathers to be anything more than lukewarm in their response to the Protestantism which the Crown wished to impose?

To the reader of Balleine's History of the Island of Jersey, the question seems strange: in the eyes of its Evangelical author, the evidence seemed simply too overwhelming for there to be any doubt on the matter. 

It had been the custom of pious Catholics to provide endowments to pay for a mass to be said on the anniversary of their own death, or that of a friend or relative; these were sometimes administered through religious clubs, known as Confraternities. The provision of such masses resulted from one of the fundamental features of late mediaeval Catholicism: the comforting belief that the living could pray for the souls of the dead. By the early 1550's, these endowments, on which the posthumous fates of so many souls were believed to depend, had been swept away by a Royal Commission, along with the statues and "objects of superstition" with which generations of Islanders had decorated their churches.

If the Jerseymen of the sixteenth century had felt any allegiance towards Catholicism, it is surely reasonable to expect to find evidence of some opposition to the imposition of the new faith. In England the government's policies provoked a large-scale rebellion in the south west in 1549, and played .a substantial part in the grievances which led to the Revolt of the Northern Earls twenty years later. But there were no revolts in Jersey. Balleine tells us that "one or two voices" were raised in opposition in the early 1550's; but they were "crying in the wilderness, for the victory of Protestantism was complete."

And here he rests his case, confident that he has established, beyond reasonable doubt, that the Reformation on Jersey was imposed rapidly and with widespread support. It seems that the jury must surely find in favour of a Reformation "from below." But before they can retire to consider their verdict, they must hear the arguments of the other side. And in order to hear these, the court must adjourn until the next issue of The PILOT.